Cigarette smoking is one of the leading causes of preventable illness worldwide. While many people know it damages the body, fewer understand just how deeply it harms the lungs. Every puff carries chemicals that slowly weaken breathing capacity, leaving the lungs struggling to function.

According to Dr. Sandeep Nayak, an experienced surgical oncologist in India, smoking not only causes cancer but also a range of chronic respiratory problems that reduce quality of life. Let’s look at the harmful effects in detail.

Smoking irritates the lining of the airways. Over time, this irritation leads to swelling, excess mucus production, and persistent coughing. This condition is known as chronic bronchitis. Many smokers live with a “smoker’s cough” without realizing it signals long-term damage.

2. Emphysema and Airway Damage

The tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs, which are responsible for oxygen exchange, help you breathe easily. Smoking destroys these delicate sacs, making it hard for oxygen to pass into the blood. This condition, called emphysema, causes breathlessness even during simple activities like walking.

Increased Risk of Lung Cancer

Cigarette smoke contains cancer-causing chemicals. These toxins damage lung cells, increasing the risk of lung cancer significantly. Dr. Sandeep Nayak emphasizes that smoking remains the number one cause of lung cancer worldwide. Early diagnosis and quitting smoking improve survival chances.

Increased Risk of Lung Cancer

Cigarette smoke contains cancer-causing chemicals. These toxins damage lung cells, increasing the risk of lung cancer significantly. Dr. Sandeep Nayak emphasizes that smoking remains the number one cause of lung cancer worldwide. Early diagnosis and quitting smoking improve survival chances.

4. Reduced Lung Function and Capacity

Smokers often notice they can’t keep up with physical activity. That’s because smoking reduces lung capacity. The lungs become less efficient at absorbing oxygen, making even light exercise feel exhausting.

5. Asthma Worsening

For people with asthma, cigarette smoke is a significant trigger. It causes airway tightening, more frequent attacks, and severe breathing problems. Even secondhand smoke can worsen asthma symptoms.

6. Weakened Immune Defense in Lungs

The lungs have natural defenses to fight bacteria and viruses. Smoking weakens these defenses, making it easier for infections such as pneumonia or the flu to take hold. Smokers often take longer to recover from respiratory infections.

7. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

COPD is a serious combination of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. It develops slowly but leads to permanent breathing difficulties. Many patients realize they have COPD only when it’s advanced, and by then, lung damage cannot be reversed.

8. Increased Risk of Tuberculosis (TB)

Smoking makes the lungs more vulnerable to tuberculosis bacteria. It also weakens the immune response, which means smokers with TB have worse outcomes compared to non-smokers.

9. Pulmonary Hypertension

Cigarette smoking raises blood pressure in the lungs’ arteries, a condition known as pulmonary hypertension. This makes the heart work harder and can lead to serious complications, including heart failure.

10. Faster Aging of the Lungs

Just like skin, lungs age too. Smoking speeds up this process, making the lungs weaker much earlier in life. Smokers in their 30s or 40s may already experience lung capacity similar to that of non-smokers decades older.

Secondhand smoke is the combination of smoke from a burning cigarette and the smoke exhaled by the smoker. It carries thousands of harmful chemicals, many of which are toxic and cancer-causing. Even brief exposure can irritate the airways, while long-term exposure increases the risk of lung cancer, COPD, and heart disease in non-smokers.

Children face the highest risk. Exposure to secondhand smoke can trigger asthma attacks, frequent coughs, and lung infections like pneumonia. It also slows down lung growth, making breathing more difficult as they grow older.

The most effective step is to stop smoking. Within weeks of quitting, the lungs begin to repair themselves. Breathing becomes easier, oxygen levels improve, and persistent coughing starts to fade.

Dr. Sandeep Nayak states, “Many harmful effects of smoking can be slowed or even partially reversed with early lifestyle changes and medical guidance.”

Support groups, nicotine replacement therapies, and counseling provide the right support system for those who want to break free from cigarettes.

Reference

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/smoking-and-respiratory-diseases

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53021/

Accurate testing and confirmation are essential for detecting and diagnosing cancer. Dr. Sandeep Nayak, an experienced oncologist in Bangalore, often emphasizes that the right diagnostic approach helps not only confirm the presence of cancer but also determine its exact type, crucial for planning treatment. Two widely used methods for this are Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) and core biopsy. These techniques are used for suspected cancers in the breast, lymph nodes, thyroid, lung, and other areas.

FNAC is a quick and minimally invasive test used to check for cancer cells. A very thin needle is inserted into the suspicious area to collect a small sample of cells. These cells are then spread on a glass slide and examined by a pathologist.

FNAC is often used as an initial screening method because it is:

• Quick and relatively painless
• Requires no stitches or significant recovery time
• Often performed in an outpatient setting

However, since FNAC collects only a few cells, it may not always provide enough information about the type or stage of cancer.

A core needle biopsy, sometimes called a Tru-Cut biopsy, involves using a slightly larger needle to remove a small cylinder of tissue from the lump. The sample is about the size of a pencil lead or pen nib and contains intact tissue architecture.

This provides pathologists with more material for testing, which allows for:

• Confirmation of the diagnosis
• Determining the type and grade of the tumor
• Performing additional molecular or receptor studies that help plan treatment

Because of these advantages, core biopsy is commonly preferred in many cancer diagnosis protocols, though the choice depends on the clinical situation.

“FNAC vs Core Biopsy isn’t just a technical choice—it’s about ensuring we get the right information at the right time to guide effective treatment,” says Dr. Nayak.

While both procedures help detect cancer, their scope and accuracy differ significantly:

FNAC and core biopsy come with their own set of benefits and drawbacks.

FNAC

Advantages

• Minimally invasive: The procedure is quick and usually well-tolerated.
• Lower cost: FNAC tends to be less expensive than a core biopsy.
• Quick results: The procedure can be done in a shorter time, and the results are often available relatively quickly.

Disadvantages

• Inaccurate results: FNAC has a higher chance of missing cancerous cells or providing inconclusive results.
• Limited information: It does not allow for detailed molecular analysis.

Core Biopsy

Advantages

• Accurate diagnosis: Core biopsy provides a larger sample, which improves diagnostic accuracy.
• Advanced testing: Enables the use of genetic and molecular testing to inform personalized treatment plans.
• More comprehensive information: Can determine tumor subtypes and other vital details that impact treatment.

Disadvantages

• Invasiveness: Although minimally invasive, core biopsy requires a larger needle and may involve more discomfort.
• Longer recovery: The procedure may cause some swelling, bruising, and soreness that can take longer to heal compared to FNAC.

FNAC is helpful as a preliminary test but has limitations in accuracy, especially when the cancer is small or located deep within the tissue. As Dr. Nayak explains, a core biopsy provides a more comprehensive sample, making it more reliable for diagnosis and treatment planning. If chemotherapy or targeted therapy is needed before surgery, a core biopsy is usually the test of choice.

FNAC may be suggested when:

• The lump is easily accessible and superficial.
• A quick, preliminary result is needed.
• The risk of cancer is considered low.
• The patient cannot undergo a more invasive test immediately.

A core biopsy is preferred when:

• Cancer is strongly suspected based on imaging or examination.
• Detailed tumor profiling is required for treatment planning.
• The patient may need chemotherapy before surgery (neoadjuvant therapy).
• FNAC results are inconclusive or contradictory.

FNAC Risks:

• Slight bleeding
• Temporary discomfort

Core Biopsy Risks:

• Mild swelling or bruising at the site
• Rare chance of infection

Recovery Tips:

• Apply gentle pressure or a cold pack to reduce swelling
• Keep the biopsy site clean and dry as advised
• Avoid strenuous activity for 24 hours

Recovery from a core biopsy might take longer than FNAC due to the larger needle and more significant tissue removal, but most patients recover within a few days.

Reference

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4800534/

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/17872-fine-needle-aspiration-fna

Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers that affects men across the globe. It ranks second in cancer incidence among men in India. Every year, thousands of new cases are diagnosed. Prostate cancer remains a major health concern in older men, despite medical treatment advancements. Awareness is very important as we fight prostate cancer since early detection greatly improves treatment success rates.

According to Dr. Sandeep Nayak, a world-renowned surgical oncologist in India, “Raising awareness about prostate cancer is essential for early detection, as it enables timely treatment and improves both survival rates and quality of life.” With over two decades of expertise in cancer care, Dr. Nayak emphasizes the importance of patient education and regular screening. He stresses that awareness can make a significant difference in outcomes for those affected by prostate cancer.

Prostate Cancer Awareness Month is observed annually in September, a time when organizations and individuals come together to raise awareness about prostate cancer. The purpose is to demonstrate the benefits of early cancer detection, discuss available treatments, and explain how active research can lead to improved outcomes. The month lets people share valuable information, resources, and personal stories that highlight why regular check-ups along with screening are important.

Prostate cancer is not only a global health concern but also one that presents unique challenges in different regions, including India. Prostate Cancer Awareness Month serves as a reminder of these varied needs, drawing attention to issues such as late diagnosis, limited awareness, and access to care. At the same time, it reinforces the vital role of early screening and lifestyle modifications in lowering risks and improving outcomes for men worldwide.

Prostate cancer is often referred to as a “silent” disease because it may not show symptoms in its early stages. However, when symptoms do appear, it may be too late for effective treatment. This is where awareness becomes critical.

By raising awareness about the risk factors and the significance of early detection, Prostate Cancer Awareness Month in India empowers men to take control of their health through regular screenings.

Dr. Sandeep Nayak emphasizes, “The more men are aware of the risk factors and signs of prostate cancer, the more likely they are to get diagnosed early, which significantly increases the chance of effective treatment.”

Prostate cancer develops in the prostate gland, a small walnut-shaped organ located below the bladder in men. The prostate produces seminal fluid that nourishes and transports sperm.

In the initial stage, prostate cancer may not cause noticeable symptoms. As it progresses, it may spread into surrounding tissues or other parts of the body, so early detection via screenings along with tests is even more important.

Prostate cancer can behave differently in each person. Some types grow very slowly, while others are more aggressive. Treatment options depend on many factors, such as the stage of cancer, the person’s overall health, and their personal choices.

Recognizing the possible signs of prostate cancer is important, although symptoms may not appear until the disease has progressed. Common symptoms include:

* Frequent urination, especially at night

* Starting or stopping urination is difficult.

* Urine flow is interrupted or is weak.

* Pain is felt while urinating, or a burning sensation occurs

* There can be blood inside your urine or semen

* Painful ejaculation

* Persistent pain within the lower back,  the hip, or the pelvis

* Unexplained weight loss

* Erectile dysfunction

It’s important to remember that these symptoms do not always mean cancer. If you experience any of these symptoms, you must consult with a healthcare provider as soon as possible to properly diagnose and evaluate.

Many risk factors may cause the development of prostate cancer. These include:

• Age: Men over 50 are at a higher risk.
• Family History: A family history of prostate cancer increases your risk.
• Race and Ethnicity: African American men have a higher risk compared to other racial groups.
• Genetic Factors: Certain genetic mutations, such as those in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, may increase the risk.
• Diet: High-fat diets have been linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer.
• Obesity: Being overweight or obese can increase the risk.
• Hormones: High levels of testosterone may contribute to the development of prostate cancer.

Understanding these risk factors can help individuals take preventive measures, including regular screenings and lifestyle changes.

With early detection of prostate cancer, the chances of successful treatment do improve quite significantly. Several methods exist for the screening and diagnosis of prostate cancer:

• Digital Rectal Exam (DRE):

The doctor checks the prostate for any abnormalities. They insert a finger into the rectum to do this.

• Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test:

This blood test measures PSA, a protein produced by the prostate. High amounts found may point to prostate cancer.

• Biopsy:

If the DRE test or the PSA test shows abnormal results, a biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis.

• MRI and Ultrasound:

The size of the tumor and its spread can be determined through the use of advanced imaging techniques.

Screening especially for higher-risk men is important; it should be done regularly when a man is at 50 or earlier with family disease history.

There are several treatment options for prostate cancer, which may include one or more of the following:

• Surgery: Removal of the prostate gland (prostatectomy) is often used for localized prostate cancer.

• Radiation Therapy: High-energy rays are used to target and kill cancer cells.

• Hormone Therapy: Medications or surgery that lower testosterone levels can slow the growth of prostate cancer.
• Chemotherapy: Used to treat advanced or metastatic prostate cancer.
• Immunotherapy: Treatments that help the immune system fight cancer cells.
• Active Surveillance: For slow-growing cancers, doctors may monitor the condition rather than immediately treating it.

“Each treatment option has its pros and cons, and the right approach depends on the type and stage of cancer, as well as the patient’s overall health,” explains Dr. Sandeep Nayak.

Living with prostate cancer can be challenging, but many men continue to lead fulfilling lives after diagnosis and treatment. The key is early detection, followed by appropriate treatment and support.

Mental and emotional health are also important aspects of living with prostate cancer. Support groups and counseling can help individuals and their families cope with the emotional impact of the diagnosis and treatment process.

During Prostate Cancer Awareness Month, there are several ways to get involved and raise awareness:

* Wear Blue: Show your support by wearing the official prostate cancer awareness color.

* Donate: Give support for prostate cancer research organizations through your contributions.

* Share Information: Spread the word on social media, talk with friends and family, and you should encourage others to get screened.

* Fundraise: Participate in some events or even host other events for the sake of both awareness and prostate cancer research funds.

September marks Prostate Cancer Awareness Month, a necessary time to reflect on the significance of early detection, raise awareness, and promote education about prostate cancer. The importance of regular screening cannot be overstated, and it is crucial for men, especially those at higher risk, to take action and prioritize their health. By working together, we can make a real difference in the lives of those affected by prostate cancer.

Reference links:

https://www.aacr.org/patients-caregivers/awareness-months/prostate-cancer-awareness-month/

https://www.urologyhealth.org/media-center/prostate-cancer-info-center

Disclaimer: The information shared in this content is for educational purposes and not for promotional use.

Receiving a cancer diagnosis can be a life-altering moment. For many patients, it raises immediate concerns about survival, treatment options, and what lies ahead. Among the various forms of colorectal cancers, rectal cancer is particularly concerning due to its rising incidence in both younger and older adults.

Globally, colorectal cancer is the third most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths, according to the World Health Organization. In India, the incidence of rectal cancer is steadily increasing, with lifestyle factors, delayed screenings, and limited awareness playing a role.

“Many people associate rectal bleeding with minor issues like piles (hemorrhoids), but for individuals above 45, it’s important to consider cancer as a possibility. Early detection through routine screening can significantly improve outcomes,” says Dr. Sandeep Nayak, a senior oncologist based in Bangalore, India.”

This page will guide you through the five Rectal Cancer Stages, explain the diagnostic tools used, and help you understand how prognosis varies based on the stage. Whether you are a patient, caregiver, or simply seeking knowledge, this comprehensive guide aims to empower your decision-making with clarity and compassion.

Let’s break it down:

Cancer staging refers to how far the disease has progressed in the body. It helps doctors decide the best treatment approach and estimate a patient’s outlook. In rectal cancer, staging typically ranges from Stage 0 to Stage IV.

Stage 0 – Carcinoma in Situ

• At this stage, cancer cells are present only in the innermost lining (mucosa) of the rectum.
• The tumor hasn’t invaded deeper layers or spread to lymph nodes.
• Often asymptomatic or detected incidentally during screening.
• Can be removed endoscopically through the anus—no major surgery required.

“Stage 0 rectal cancer is the earliest and most treatable phase. It allows for intervention with minimal surgery and high cure rates,” notes Dr. Nayak.

Here, the cancer has grown beyond the mucosa but hasn’t broken through the rectal wall entirely.

Common Stage 1 Rectal Cancer Symptoms:

• Blood in stool
• Mild changes in bowel habits
• Misdiagnosed frequently as hemorrhoids

Diagnosis usually involves:

• Colonoscopy with biopsy
• MRI or CT scans to evaluate depth

Treatment:

• Surgery alone is typically curative.
• In select cases, radiotherapy is considered before surgery.

At Stage II, the cancer has invaded through the rectal wall but hasn’t reached lymph nodes or distant organs.

Symptoms may include:

• Alternating diarrhea and constipation
• Pelvic discomfort
• Blood in stool

Treatment Plan:

• Neoadjuvant therapy (radiotherapy ± chemotherapy) before surgery
• This reduces tumor size and prevents recurrence

“In Stage II cases, pre-surgery therapy (neoadjuvant therapy) is strongly recommended as it can improve outcomes by reducing tumor size and lowering recurrence risk. When treated systematically, Stage II rectal cancer also has a high survival rate,” says Dr. Nayak.

Now the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes. This stage is often termed locally advanced.

Stage 3 Rectal Cancer Symptoms:

• Persistent bowel changes
• Pelvic or abdominal pain
• Rectal bleeding
• Possible bowel obstruction

Diagnosis includes:

• Colonoscopy
• MRI, CT, or PET CT scans for detailed staging

Treatment Strategy:

• Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy
• Followed by surgery to remove cancer and affected nodes

“Even at Stage III, the goal is cure. The tumor may be large or aggressive, but with multimodal treatment, long-term survival is possible,” shares Dr. Nayak.

Stage 3 rectal cancer survival rate by age:

• Patients below 60 years often show better recovery outcomes.
• With aggressive treatment, approximately 50–60% of patients may achieve long-term remission.

In Stage IV, rectal cancer has spread to distant organs, such as:

• Liver
• Lungs
• Bones
• Peritoneal (abdominal) cavity

Symptoms depend on spread:

• Abdominal pain
• Jaundice or liver swelling
• Chronic cough (if lungs involved)
• Painful bowel movements or obstructions

Treatment Options:

• Systemic chemotherapy
• Surgery (in select cases) to remove metastases
• Advanced techniques like HIPEC for abdominal spread

“Not all Stage IV cancers are untreatable. If metastases are limited, surgery may be considered to attempt a cure. Although the prognosis is generally poorer, some Stage IV cases with limited lung or liver spread may have improved survival rates after surgery,” emphasizes Dr. Nayak.

Understanding the extent of cancer helps tailor the treatment. Here are the tools typically used:

Colonoscopy: Visual inspection and biopsy of the rectum

MRI Scan: Provides clear images of local tumor invasion

CT Scan: Detects spread to distant organs

PET-CT: Shows cancer activity across the body

Blood Tests: Includes CEA (tumor marker) and basic panels to assess overall health

“Imaging is not just about detection; it guides our treatment and lets us anticipate complications. Each tool has a role, and doctors often combine them for accurate staging,” Dr. Nayak explains.

The prognosis of rectal cancer heavily depends on its stage at diagnosis. Here’s how it typically breaks down:

Stage 0: Nearly 100% survival rate with endoscopic removal.

Stage I: Over 95% survival rate with surgery alone.

Stage II: Around 80–85% survival rate with combination therapy.

Stage III: Varies based on lymph node involvement, but typically 50–60% survival rate.

Stage IV: About 10–20% average survival rate, but can reach up to 40–50% in select cases where surgery for isolated metastases is possible.

Early screening and timely treatment can significantly improve outcomes, especially for those under 60.

Summary

Rectal cancer staging plays a crucial role in shaping treatment strategies and outcomes. From early-stage localized tumors to advanced cancers that have spread to other organs, each stage presents unique challenges—but also opportunities for cure and control. With prompt diagnosis and expert care, patients can expect vastly improved outcomes, even in higher stages.

Support

At MACS Clinic, we aim to provide patient-centered and comprehensive care. For international patients, the process is designed to minimize the need for multiple visits. Most of the treatment, including diagnosis, surgery, and initial recovery, can often be completed in one visit to Bangalore. Follow-up care is coordinated online or in your home country. Our team, led by Dr. Sandeep Nayak, is dedicated to supporting patients throughout their cancer journey.

 References:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rectal-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352884

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21733-rectal-cancer

Disclaimer: Individual results may vary. This information is for educational purposes only and does not substitute for professional medical advice. Please consult a qualified doctor for personalized recommendations.